Download complete project materials on Investigation Of Rhesus Negative Individuals Attending Public Hospital. (Yusuf Dantsoho Memorial Hospital Tudun Wada And Barau Dikko Teaching Hospital Kaduna)
ABSTRACT
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Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulate continually around the body, allowing constant communication between tissues distant from each other. Rhesus system is based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substance on the surface of the red blood cell. The rhesus blood group antigens are hereditary traits and useful in population genetics.
Two thousand five hundred and ten patients constituted the population of the study and fifty seven sampled size was obtained. Purpose sampling technique was used to obtained the sample size by cubital venipuncture and analyzed using agglutination method. The results revealed that 981 (40%) were Rhesus positive male and 1472 (60%) positive female respectively. 18 (31.6%) were Rhesus negative male and 39 (68.4%) were negative female.
Rhesus negative was found to be high in age group of 18 – 35 years and low in 36 years and above. Distribution based on educational qualification was found to be high in individuals with secondary school certificate and low in those with primary school certificate.
Distribution on socio-economic background was high in moderate income followed by low income and low in high income. It is recommended that proper awareness and counselling should be created so as to reduce or eradicate the occurrence of Haemolytic disease of foetus and newborn and Haemolytic transfusion reaction.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page
Approval page
Dedication
Declaration
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of content
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
1.1Â Â Â Â Justification
1.2Â Â Â Â Aim and Objectives
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Blood Constituents 8
2.1Â Â Â Â Blood Group System
2.2Â Â Â Â Rhesus Factor
2.3Â Â Â Â Rh Blood Grouping
2.4Â Â Â Â Rhesus Nomenclature
2.5Â Â Â Â Antigens of the Rhesus Blood Group
2.6Â Â Â Â Antibodies of the Rhesus Blood Group
2.7Â Â Â Â Rhesus Disease
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.0Â Â Â Â Sample Site
3.1Â Â Â Â Population
3.2Â Â Â Â Sample And Sampling Technique
3.3Â Â Â Â Blood Sample Collection
3.4Â Â Â Â Taking Blood Sample
3.6Â Â Â Â Rhesus Blood Grouping
3.7Â Â Â Â Slide Technique
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0Â Â Â Â Result
4.1Â Â Â Â Occurrence and Distribution of Rhesus Negative
4.2Â Â Â Â Occurrence of Rhesus Negative
4.3Â Â Â Â Occurrence of Rhesus Negative
4.4Â Â Â Â Distribution of Rhesus Negative
4.5Â Â Â Â Distribution of Rhesus Negative
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1Â Â Â Â Discussions
5.1Â Â Â Â Recommendation
5.2Â Â Â Â Conclusion
Reference
INTRODUCTION
What is urinary tract infection?
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract it is known as a bladder infection (cystitis) and when it affects the upper urinary tract it is known as kidney infection (pyelonephritis).
Systems from a lower urinary tract include pain with urination, frequent urination, and feeling the need to urinate despite haring an empty bladder. Symptoms of kidney infection include fever and flank paint usually in addition to the symptoms of a lower UTI. Rarely the urine may appear body in the very old and very young, symptoms may be vague or non-specific (C.DC et al., 2015).
UTI is defined as the presence of at least 100,000 organism per milliliter in urine of an asymptomatic patient, or as more than 100 organism/ml of urine with accompanying pyuria (>/w Bcs/ml) in an symptomatic patient (cheese brough, 2000). Urinary tract infections (UTLs) are one of the most common bacterial infection during pregnancy.
UTLs are associated with risks to both the fetus and the mother, including pyhelonephritis, preterm birth, low birth, weight and increased perinatal mortality (Delzell and Leferre 2000). The prevalence’s rates of bacteriuria in pregnant and non pregnant women are essential the same. UTIs are more common in women when compared with men, primarily becauses of the anatomic differences of shorter urethra and its proximity to the vagina and the rectum.
However, when pregnant women have urinary tract infection, they have a higher risk for the with lower tract UTIs (Olusanya and Ogun-ledum, 1993). Several physiological changes occur during pregnancy that cause other wise healthy women to be more susceptible to serious sequelse from urinary tract infections. The infection can be symptomic or asymptomaties (Gabreslassie, 1998).
Asymptomatic bacteriuria, as the name implies is a positive urine culture without specific symptoms. Asymptomatic bacteriuria increase the risk for an upper tract, UTIs also known as pyhelaiephritis. Treatment of asymptomatics bacteriuria reduces the risk of a & symptomatic infection (Haider et al., 2010).
Urinary tract infections are more concerning in pregnancy due to the increased risk of kidney infections. During pregnancy, high progesterone levels elevate the risk of decreased muscle tone of the ureters and bladder, which leads to a greater likelihood of reflux, where urine flower backup the ureters and towards the kidneys while pregnant women do not have an increased risk of asymptomatic bacteriuria, if bacteriuria is present they do have a 25 – 40% risk of a kidney infection. (Dielubanza et al., 2011).
Thus if urine testing shows signs of an infection even in the absence of symptoms – treatment is recommended. Cephalexin in Initrofurantoin are typically used because they are generally considered safe in pregnancy. (Gumto, V.T et al., 2010).
A kidney infection during pregnancy may result in premature birth or pre-eclampsia (a state of high blood pressure and kidney dysfunction during pregnancy that can lead to Seizures). (Dielubanza, et al., 2011).
Organism Features:
The most common causes of infections is Escherichia coli, though other bacteria or fungi may revely be the cause. Risk factors include female anatomy, sexual intercourse, diabetes, obesity and fanuly history (flores-mireles 2015).
Although sexual intercourse is a risk factor, UTI are not classified as sexually transmitted infection (SITs) (Elsevier Health Science 2013). Kidney infections if it occurs, usually follows a bladder infection but may also result from a blood-borne infection (Elserier Health Science 2015). Diagnosis in young healthy women can be based on symptoms alone.
(Nicolle (2008) in those with vague symptoms, diagnosis can be difficult because bacteria may be present without there being an infection. (Jarris, (2007). In complicated cases or if treatment fails, a urine culture may be useful. (Colgan et al., 2011).
In uncomplicated cases, UTIs are treated with a short course of antibiotics such as nitrofurantion or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxzale (Salvatore et al., June 2011). Resistance to many of the antibiotic used to treat this condition in increasing (DC. 2015).
In complicated cases, a longer course or intervenous antibiotics may be needed (Salvatore et al., June 2011) if sysmptoms do not improved in two or three days, further diagnostic testing may be needed (Cologan et al., 2011) Phenazopridine may help with symptoms (C. D. C. et al., 2015). In those who have bacteria or white blood cells in their urine but have no symptoms, antibiotics are generally not needed, (Ferroni et al., 2015).
Although during pregnancy is an exception (Glasar et al., 2015). In those with frequent infections, a short course of antibiotics may be taken as soon as symptoms begin or long term antibiotics may be used a preventative masure (Prescire 2013).
About 150 million people developed a urinary tract infection each year (Flores-mireles et al., (2015) they are more cannon in women than men (Salvatore et al., 2011).
In women thy are the most common form of bacteria infection (colgan et al., (2011 – 10 – 01) up to 10% of women have a urinary tract infection in a given year and half of women having at least one infection at some point in their live (Salvature et al., 2011).
They occur most frequently between the age of 16 and 35 years (Nicolle Le (2008). Recurrences are common (Salvatore et al., 2011). Times with the first documented description in he Ebers papyrus dated to C. 1550 Bc. (Al achi, (2008).
Pathophysiology of urinary tract infections (UTIs) Infections result from a secending colonization of the urimary tract primarily by existing vaginal, perineal, and fecal flora. Various material physiologic and anatomic factors predispose to ascending infection.
Such factors include; urinary retention caused by the weight of the enlarging uterus and urinary stasis due to progesterone-include ureteral smooth muscle relaxation. Blood – volume expansion is accompanied by increases in the glomercular filtration rate and urinary out put.
Loss of ureteral tone combined with increased urinary tract volume results in urinary stasis, which can lead to dilatation of the ureters, renal pelvis and calces urinary stasis and the presence of vesicaireteral reflux predispose same women to upper urinary tract infection (UTIs) and acute pyelonephritis. (Emilie et al., 2015).
Pathogenesis of UTIS
The bacteria that cause urinary tract infectious typically enter the bladder via the urethra. However, infection may also occur via the blood or lymph it is believed that the bacteria are usually transmitted to the urethra from the bowel, with females at greater risk due to their anatomy. After gaining entry to the bladder, E. coli are able to attach to the bladder wall and forma biofilm that resista the body’s immune response (Salvatore et al., 2011).
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