This is a complete project materials on Effects of Impurities on the Heat Absorption and Retention Capacity of Freshwater from chapter one to five with references and abstract.
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ABSTRACT
The benefit of heat absorption and retention in water cannot be overemphasized as it is majorly responsible for temperature regulation and stability in both the human body and the planet as a whole. The effect of impurities on the heat retention and absorption of freshwater was investigated with a view on identifying what impurity gave freshwater the best heat retention and absorption ability.
The effect of concentrations of impurities on the heat absorption and retention capacity of water was also investigated. Two methods were used each for the determination of both heat retention and absorption of freshwater. Measured values (5g, 10g and 15g) of sugar samples was dissolved in a 100ml polypropylene beaker of water and kept in a freezer simultaneously till the solutions attained freezing point, with the temperature drop recorded at intervals of ten minutes with a digital thermometer.
The beakers were removed simultaneously from the freezer with the temperature rise recorded till room temperature was attained. Measured values (5g, 10g and 15g) of sugar were each added to 100ml of water, and the solution heated to boiling point. Time taken for each sample to reach boiling point was also recorded.
A cooling system was setup with the aid of a copper calorimeter and stirrer, to enable uniform temperature during the cooling process. A digital thermometer was used to record temperature drop at each ten minute interval till room temperature was attained.
This was done for samples of Salt, Milk, Alum, Baking powder and CaC0₃. Graph of temperature against time was plotted using Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet, in which the rate of heat retention and absorption of freshwater was determined. The result shows that generally, impurities reduce both the heat retention and absorption capacity of water.
Also, for all concentrations of impurities subjected to the freezing process (heat retention), Baking powder gave water the best heat retention ability in a time of 2hrs 50mins and Sugar was the least in 1hr 50mins. It was also, deduced that Baking powder and Salt gave freshwater a high heat absorption rate both in a time of 1hr 10mins, while Milk took the least time in absorbing heat in 2hrs 40mins.
TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT
Title page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Table of Content
List of figures
List of tables
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE –
INTRODUCTION
1.0INTRODUCTION
1.1. Physical and Chemical properties of water
1.1.1 Electrical conductivity of water
1.1.2 Dissolving capacity of water
1.1.3 PH of water
1.2 Distinct states at which water can exist
1.3 Density of water
1.4 Water at Excited State
1.5 Solubility of Different Materials in Freshwater
1.6 Boiling of freshwater
1.6.1 Boiling point of Freshwater
1.6.2 Factors that affect boiling point of a substance
1.7 Freezing of freshwater
1.7.1 Freezing point of freshwater
1.8 Anomalous nature of water
1.9 Water’s high heat capacity
1.10 Impurities
1.10.1 Effect of impurities on boiling point of a liquid
1.10.2 Effect of impurities on freezing point of a liquid
1.10.3 Sugar
1.10.4 Salt
1.10.5 Powdered Milk
1.10.6 Alum
1.10.7 Baking powder
1.10.8 CaC0₃
1.11 Thermodynamics
1.12 The concept of heat
1.12.1 Heat Transfer
1.12.2 Methods of heat transfer
1.12.2.1 Conduction
1.12.2.2 Convection
1.12.2.3 Radiation
1.13 Importance and significance of the work
1.14 Aims and Objectives of the project
2.0 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE – MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.0 introduction
3.1 materials used
3.1.1 mextech digital thermometer
3.2 methodology
3.2.1 effects on impurities on freezing point of water
(heat retention)
3.2.2 effects of impurities on the melting rate of
freshwater (heat absorption)
3.2.3 effect of impurities on the boiling point of
water (heat absorption)
3.2.4 effect of impurities on the cooling rate of water
(heat retention)
chapter four –
results and discussions
4.1 temperature changes during freezing
4.2 temperature changes during melting
4.3 temperature changes during cooling
chapter five –
conclusion and recommendation
5.0 CONCLUSION
5.1 Equal concentration of all impurities
5.1.1 For 5grams concentration of impurities
5.1.2 For 10grams Concentration of impurities
5.1.3 For 15grams Concentration of impurities
5.2 Varying Concentration of the same impurity
5.2.1 For Varying Concentrations of Sugar
5.2.2 For Varying Concentrations of Salt
5.2.3 For Varying Concentrations of Milk
5.2.4 For Varying Concentrations of Alum
5.2.5 For Varying Concentrations of Baking powder
5.2.6 For Varying Concentrations of CaC0₃
References
CHAPTER ONE
EFFECT OF IMPURITIES ON THE HEAT ABSORPTION AND RETENTION CAPACITY OF FRESHWATER
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is a transparent fluid which forms the world’s streams, rivers, lakes, rain, and oceans. As a chemical compound, a single water molecule contains one atom of oxygen, and two atoms of hydrogen connected by covalent bonds.
Water covers 71% of the total Earth’s surface.96.5% of earth’s water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction of water can be found in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation.Only 2.5% of the Earth’s water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is ice (excepting ice in clouds) and groundwater. Only less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere (Gleick, P.H 1993).
Many substances dissolve in water and it is commonly referred to as the universal solvent. For this cause, water in nature and in use is rarely pure and some properties may vary from those of the pure substance. However, there are also many compounds that are essentially, if not completely insoluble in water.
Pure Water has a boiling and melting point of 100⁰C and 0⁰C respectively.Water is the only common substance found naturally in all three common states of matter and itis essential for all life on Earth. Water makes up 55-78% of the human body, so its importance cannot be overemphasized.
A water molecule has no net charge because the number of positively charged protons equals the number of negatively charged electrons. However, because the hydrogen ends of the molecule have a slight positive charge and the oxygen end has a slight negative charge, it is called a polar molecule.
The negative and positive ends of different water molecules slightly attract each other, forming hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds are about twenty times weaker than the covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen.
1.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Water
The polar nature of the water molecule and the hydrogen bonds are responsible for many of water’s unique physical and chemical properties.
1.1.1Electrical Conductivity of Water
Most natural waters contain dissolved ions (atoms or molecules possessing a charge) derived from the water’s interaction with soil, bedrock, atmosphere, and biosphere. As a result of these ions, water is able to conduct electricity much better than it otherwise can: for example, sea waterwith its dissolved saltscan conduct electricity about 100 times more readily than distilled water. In any case, the ability of water to conduct electricity is the reason for the warning labels that appear on most electrical appliances warning consumers not to operate them near water.
The electrical conductivity (or specific conductance) of water depends on the concentration and charge of the dissolved ions (Weast, Robert C.2000). Because of this relationship, conductivity often is used as an indicator of the total dissolved solids (TDS) in the water.
The TDS is an important chemical property of water that provides information regarding the water’s history of “evolution” (for instance, its movement through underground aquifers). Conductivity is only an estimate of TDS, however, because a given value of conductivity can be produced by several different combinations of ion concentration and charge.
1.1.2 Dissolving Capacity of Water
Water molecules also can be attracted to surfaces of minerals in soils and rocks. This attraction allows dissolving (dissolution) and other chemical reactions to occur so readily that water often is called the “universal solvent.” Because water can dissolve and carry a wide range of chemicals, minerals, and nutrients, it plays an essential role in almost all biological and geochemical processes.
1.1.3 PH of Water
One important chemical property of natural water that affects its ability to dissolve minerals and influence chemical reactions is its pH. The pH, which indicates the acidity of water, measures the abundance of positively charged hydrogen ions (H +), and is defined numerically as the negative logarithm of the concentration of H + ions. Because pH is measured on a logarithmic scale, the concentration of H+ ions is ten times greater in water with a pH of 5 than water with a pH of 6, for example.
Water with a pH greater than 0 and less than 7 is termed acidic; a pH equaling 7 is neutral at temperatures at the Earth’s surface; and a pH between 7 and 14 is termed alkaline (or basic). Distilled water is considered neutral, and has a pH of 7. Natural waters also can be neutral, but more often are either slightly acidic or slightly basic.
Water in some volcanic caldera lakes can be very acidic, with pH values sometimes less than 1. If a wristwatch were dropped into water this acidic, the watch would be damaged beyond recognition within minutes. Rain in unpolluted areas has a pH of about 5.6 due to the dissolution of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This slightly acidic nature enhances rain-water’s dissolving power.
In some locations, rainwater’s acidity is greatly increased (the pH is lowered) by the absorption of certain atmospheric pollutants, causing what is called acid rain.Rainwater is neutralized by chemical reactions with minerals in soils and rocks so that the pH of most streams and lakes is between about 6.5 and 8.5. Aquatic organisms often are very sensitive to the pH of water. Below a pH of about 5, most fish will die.
1.2 Distinct States at Which Water Can Exist
Water can exist in three distinct states: water (liquid), steam (gas), and ice (solid). At sea level, ice melts (solid changes to a liquid) at 0°C (32°F) and boils (liquid changes to a gas) at 100°C (212°F). The temperature at which water changes from one state to another depends on atmospheric pressure. At the elevation of Denver, Colorado, where air pressure is about 17 percent lower than at sea level, water boils at about 94°C (201°F).
Boiling hot water thrown from a cup into very cold air will almost instantly freeze in midair and create a shower of ice crystals.At sufficiently high pressures and temperatures, water and steam are no longer distinct phases, and instead comprise a supercritical fluid. The critical temperature is 374°C (705°F) and the critical pressure is 22.06 mega-pascals (3,198.70 pounds-force per square inch), or the pressure reached at a depth of 2.2 kilometers (1.4 miles) in the ocean. At those depths, of course, sea water is well below critical temperature. The hot water circulating in vents above the active volcanic system at mid-ocean ridges at the bottom of the ocean is thus a supercritical fluid.
1.3 Density of Water
Water is unique among common substances in that its density decreases when it freezes; that is, water goes from 1.000 gram per cubic centimeter in liquid form to 0.915 grams per cubic centimeter in solid form. As a result, water expands about 9 percent in volume when it freezes. Consequently, ice floats on lakes and rivers, and icebergs float in the ocean.
This also explains the common phrase “only the tip of the iceberg,” implying that there is considerably more present than can be seen. Because of the relative densities of ice and liquid water, approximately 90 percent of the mass of ice remains hidden below water level.
In water, hydrogen bonds produce clusters of water molecules with a more open (less dense) structure than water itself. Cluster formation reaches a minimum at about 4°C (39°F). Because of this, water at 4°C is denser than water at any other temperature and will sink to the bottom in a pool or lake.
In lakes, as winter air temperatures fall below freezing, this phenomenon helps to keep the lake from freezing entirely, because when the water near the surface cools to 4°C, it sinks below the crust of surface ice, which is at 0°C. As a result, water remains unfrozen at the bottom of the lake.
This is the reason people with fish ponds in the northern latitudes are amazed in the spring to find their goldfish still alive even though the pond surface froze completely during the winter.
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