Download complete project materials on Analysis Of Contents Of Cow And Goat Bone Ash from chapter one to five with reference and abstract
ABSTRACT
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This project work introduced some knowledge about the basics involved in finding the contents of bone. This project work deals with the principle of qualitative analysis of cations and anions. Skeletal system plays an integral part of most of the animals “what is it that makes It to form an integral part?”. The solution to this question can be understood more succinctly from this project work.
This project indeed would be a revolution in the world, where there is increasing worry about problems of bone like osteoporosis and osteomalacia. In this industrial age amount of calcium content in bone is also reducing; this project work would indeed be a very good solution.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bones are rigid organs from part of the endoskeleton of the vertebrates. They support and protect the various organs of body production red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of tense connective tissue. Bone comes in a variety of shapes and has a complex internal and external structure, are light weight yet strong and hard and serve multiple functions.
One of the types of tissue that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue that gives it rigidity and a coral-like three dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessel and cartilage. “At birth, there are over 270 bones in an infant human’s body”. (steele D. Gentry et. al (1998).
The Anatomy and Biology of the Human skeleton, Texas A&M University press page 4 ISBN-0-89096-300-2), but many of these bones fused together as the child grows, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in an adult. “The largest bone in the human body is the femur and the smallest bones are auditory ossicles.” (Schmiedder et. al (1934) parent and child. An Introductory Study of Parent Education page 31).
Bones are also a dynamic tissue that performs mechanical, biological and chemical functions and it depends on chemical and physical properties and are affected by age, nutrition, hormonal status and diseases.
(Loveridge 1999), the skeletal system forms the external structure and appearance of mammalian vertebrate species and has the obvious functions locomotion, structural support of the body and protection of soft tissue such as brain, heart, spinal cord and lungs. Bone also serves as metabolic reservoir of Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P) and other minerals. Also, it houses cells responsible for bone formation and resorption (Decke et. al 1993).
1.1FORMATION OF BONE
The formation of bone during the fetal stage of development occurs by two processes:
Intra membranous Ossification
Endochondral Ossification
1.1.0 INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
This mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull; the bone is formed from mesenchyme tissue. The steps in intramembranous ossification are:
- Development of ossification centre
- Calcification
- Formation of trabeculae
- Development of periosteum
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
Endochondral ossification on the other hand, occurs in long bones such as limbs; the bone is formed from cartilage. The steps in endochondral ossification are:
- Development of cartilage model
- Growth of cartilage model
- Development of primary ossification center
- Development of secondary center
- Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate.
Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called primary ossification centers” they mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones.
Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extrimities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses and a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18-25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure).
BONE MARROW
Bone marrow can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow, but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by yellow of fatty marrow. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the marrow bones of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.
REMODELING
Remodeling or bone turnover is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a person’s life. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via pancrine cell signaling, are referred to as bone remodeling units. Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodeling each year.
PURPOSE
The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair micro-damaged bones (from every day stress) but also to shape and sculpture the skeleton during growth.
CALCIUM BALANCE
The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systematic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the blood stream, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site specific locations.
REPAIR
Repeated stress such as weight bearing exercise or bone healing result in the bone thickening at the point of maximum stress (Wolff’s law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bones piezoelectric properties which cause bone to generate small electrical potential under stress.
PARACRINE CELL SIGNAL
The action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts are controlled by a number of chemical factors which either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which the bone is made, destroyed or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signaling to control the activity of each other.
OSTEOBLAST STIMULATION
Osteoblast can be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to breakdown osseous tissue.
Bone building through increase secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens).
These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin. Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines to promote reabsorbtion of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells.
Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteblasts to increase secretion of RANK ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorbtion of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin.
OSTEOCLAST INHIBITION
The rate at which osteoclast reabsorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting the osteoclast stimulation.
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